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90 reviewsDevice-based non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques show Introductionpromise for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders, Device-based NIBS techniquesalthough inconsistencies in protocol designs and study fndings Treating cognitive impairment can make the feld difcult to navigate. In this Review, we discuss in neurodegenerative dementiasapplications of NIBS for enhancing cognitive and motor function in people with various neurological diseases that are characterized by Therapeutic applications of NIBS in PDdisruption of large-scale brain networks, including neurodegenerative NIBS for acquired brain lesionsdiseases and brain lesion disorders such as stroke and traumatic brain injury. In particular, we focus on repetitive transcranial magnetic Future perspectivesstimulation and transcranial electrical stimulation, as these techniques Conclusionshave been widely used in clinical settings and randomized controlled trials. We summarize and synthesize current knowledge, and highlight gaps and shortcomings in the existing research that make it difcult to draw frm conclusions, including small sample sizes, heterogeneous patient populations and variations in stimulation protocols. We believe that a rapid evolution of NIBS techniques from state-dependent, networkinformed, multifocal and subcortical paradigms to individualized electric feld modelling and accelerated NIBS protocols will improve the management of neurological disorders. However, realizing this potential will require us to address crucial challenges and acquire deeper mechanistic insights, with the aim of developing adaptive, biomarker-driven protocols to optimize target engagement, dosing and timing for each patient.
